"À Votre Santé!": Representations of Paris and Absinthe in Late Nineteenth Century Art

The subject of the iconology behind absinthe in the art of late nineteenth century to early twentieth century is a difficult one to completely unpack because the iconography was so diverse across a wide array of artists - despite occurring in such a small timeframe. Absinthe, seemingly overnight, became a popular topic of discussion in Europe after it gained extreme popularity in the late 1800s, especially within France where it was not only produced at greater rates than most of Europe, but was also becoming vital to French Parisian café culture. Absinthe, to many conservatives within France and especially within other countries in Europe, was a drink of immorality and many came to associate it with the perceived immorality of Paris itself. This practice of using the drink as a scapegoat for criticisms with problems people had with Parisian society eventually expanded until artists in the late nineteenth century began using visual depictions of absinthe and/or drunkenness to represent their own personal grievances, praises and experiences with Parisian society. In fact, in many cases, the use of absinthe had nothing to do with artists’ opinion on the drink at all. This idea can be seen particularly clearly when examining works created by artists across a variety of social standings and analyzing them against the historical background of absinthe and prevailing opinions at the time.

One cannot understand the nuances of absinthe within nineteenth century art without first understanding the context behind it. Absinthe had a dynamic history. Though it is said to have been invented by the Swiss, the drink has long since been associated with the French. French soldiers during the Algerian War used the drink for its supposed medical benefits.[1] Soldiers continued to use to for injuries in the Franco Prussian War and peasants in France who made it themselves (a common practice for peasants with access to the large array of ingredients and plants capable of being made into absinthe) would use it as a home medical remedy as well as an aperitif.[2] Absinthe, traditionally, was an incredibly strong alcohol, being up to 135 proof in some cases, and was meant to be drunk slowly. A small amount would be poured into a glass, then a cube of sugar in a spoon would be held over the glass followed by water poured over the sugar cube to the amount desired. One of the main ingredients in the drink, perhaps the reason absinthe was such an invitation for debate, was the wormwood crop. Studies found it to be habit forming and in heavy doses it was suspected to lead to hallucinations. In art, absinthe was depicted in almost every case the exact same way. It was shown to be green, due to the addition of mint for flavoring to the drink during its industrialization, in a long wide glass similar to one used to serve beer.[3]

The growth of popularity of absinthe in France, specifically Paris, was due to the rise and urbanization of Paris itself. From around 1871 to 1915 France was experiencing a period of general economic prosperity. This time period, the Belle Epoque (French for “Beautiful Time”), was one of intense urbanization and change within France and fell between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I. War time in this case, as with most cases, lead to prosperity within the country as industry was stimulated and country pride was significantly boosted - despite the fact that France actually lost the Franco-Prussian War. Industrialization spurred on the growth of factories that could produce goods at faster rates than ever, including absinthe. The first major factory that could produce Absinthe cheaper and faster was Pernod Fills; its products soon became so easily available that absinthe experienced a general decrease in price and increase in popularity. Consumption of absinthe had risen from 15,521 hectoliters of pure alcohol in 1875 to 239,482 in 1913.[4]

Paris grew drastically in size during these years - a growing industry increasing the demand for laborers in new areas. Urbanization in turn spurred on Haussmannization, in which Paris underwent a complete makeover. In order to achieve order and further beautify the city, the layout was completely re-done. Small, curved uneven pathways and "randomly" placed buildings were knocked down to re-align the roads in the center of the city. Apartments were divided up between people of all economic classes. The lower floors housed bourgeoisie, while the higher up it got, the more working classes rented. For the first time classes began to mingle more freely. The city became organized and geometric - large boulevards allowing room for cafes to open storefronts and patios. With more people on the streets able to walk, observe each other and have conversations, cafes became a popular destination for people of all classes. Alcohol consumption expanded greatly with the urbanization and the growth of cafes.[5] With a beautiful layout and bars/cafés booming, Paris became the epicenter of culture and life.[6]

Pierre-Auguste Renoir, the artist who became the artist of choice for the bourgeoisie, depicted absinthe, and by extension Paris, in this same light. Renoir began his life in the middle class - eventually apprenticing under artist Charles Gleyre with little to no success for years until the 1860s.[7] Despite his paintings having painterly aspects - undefined brush strokes and use of perceived colors - Renoir was popular among The School for his light, joyful subject matters reminiscent of the Rococo era. Renoir arguably chose these “joyful” scenes to cater to his bourgeoisie audiences as well as express his own notably conservative opinions. Despite criticisms with the Second Republic’s strict military and rising amount of homeless, Renoir’s Paris was one of perfection.

His painting “Luncheon of The Boating Party”, 1881, exemplifies the Parisian lifestyle the Belle Epoque and the Second Republic was known for. The painting, large and full of life as was typical for Renoir’s paintings, depicts a scene at an outdoor café. An awning overhead and a bannister block the fifteen visible figures into the frame of painting where they congregate around a table together. The table is full of alcohol (both wine and absinthe, which can be identified by the glass most forward on the table and the small spoons intended for sugar cubes resting against the bottles towards the center of the table) and set in the center of the frame of the painting, making it a focal point. Renoir’s placement of these drinks - all empty to suggest everyone has already descended into drunkenness - as the central point where all the figures crowd around suggest absinthe, just like cafes and by extension Parisian society, was something that brought everyone from all walks of life together. That is certainly true in this painting. Bourgeoisie men and women, identifiable by their more theatrical attire (the women with flowers adorning their hats and frilly blouses, the men with jackets and black top hats), sit, chat and drink the same liquor as lower class working men in sleeveless shirts and straw hats. There are still clearly different classes but everyone appears happy as they are. They all get along; the poorer, working classes do not resent their status or the richer bourgeoisie. The entire painting is reminiscent of the Rococo masterpieces Renoir was so fond of where society was peaceful with its current state and working class people looked as freshly bathed as the higher classes. This isn’t to say Renoir was ignorant in his depiction of Parisian society. Renoir did not actually believe Paris was a melting pot of classes where the lower classes had no complaints and were able to afford the same alcohol as the bourgeoisie. By acknowledging there was any problem with excessive drinking and absinthe was to criticize the Parisian culture he so greatly loved. Instead, absinthe is manifesting as a fun centrality to draw people in from all different walks of life.

Of course, other Impressionists used absinthe’s representations of Paris in a more realistic way. Paris still represented the up and coming - the development and the "fun" of life - but these artists were more interested in the underbelly of Parisian culture. Artists like Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Édouard Manet similarly saw Parisian culture as the manifestation of the Belle Epoque, just not as prim and proper as Renoir. Where Renoir refused to acknowledge drunkenness, prostitution and other “raunchy” behavior (behaviors that Renoir actually despised, as Renoir made clear multiple time in his career), Manet and Lautrec reveled in it. Absinthe became the perfect platform to express these feelings and vices as the drink’s reputation was as scandalous as the underlying Parisian street culture was.

Manet’s “The Absinthe Drinker”, 1859, focuses, as the title would suggest, on a lone figure that has been drinking absinthe seemingly all day if the empty bottle lying on the ground is any indication. Next to him is a full glass of absinthe - recognizable by its green color and glass shape. The man, who wears a tattered black cloak and a presumably stolen hat (the black top hat of the bourgeoisie men was a recognizable symbol and not worn by other classes), leans back against the wall of the alley the painting is set in. While at first glance the painting can be seen as a blatant criticism of the drink, by showing someone so worn down - with the only clue as to why being the drink - it’s presented in a particularly realist fashion. It’s quite reminiscent of Courbet stylistically - the palette Manet uses is earthy and dark and it depicts a typically Realist subject- lower classes as they actually are. While Renoir depicts working classes pale skinned and soft, Realists didn’t sugarcoat. They would depict real life examples of police brutality. They would show workers slaving away in the field or doing backbreaking labor in the sun. Realists didn’t always do this to criticize but to, similarly to Manet and Lautrec, depict life as it really was. Sometimes simply showing the truth was seen as trying to stir the pot - especially in this case as Manet submitted this piece to the salon of 1859.[8] It is important to note the date of this painting is 1859, well before absinthe also began being viewed internationally and nationally as an issue. France didn’t even ban (temporarily) the drink until 1914. Manet at this time could not have known the particularly unsightly effects of absinthe; depicting drunkenness was to show a reality of life not a criticism of alcohol. The gaze of this lone figure also displays the true intent of Manet to be one of interest and documentation. The figure, regardless of his being a rag picker, shows no shame at his position or the drinking that presumably got him into that position. He looks to the viewer - acknowledging them and his existence within Parisian society even as those in power tried to ignore him. Absinthe sits unassumingly on the stoop next to this rag picker as the symbol for the dirty, darker side that came with the changing Paris.

If there was one thing Lautrec loved, it was Paris. It is clear when looking at his body of work collectively. He had an affinity for depicting prostitutes - not done up and sexy for bourgeoisie men to enjoy but lounging unabashedly in brothels or being tender with one another. He showed café and bar scenes with expressions perhaps a bit exaggerated but gritty in the way he discovered his Paris to be. His paintings weren’t to make fun or criticize Parisian culture - quite the opposite actually. He poked a little fun at the ridiculousness of it but loved it all the same. He once said, “Everywhere and always ugliness has its beautiful aspects; it is thrilling to discover them where nobody else has noticed them.”[9] His painting from 1893, “Monsieur Boileau”, displayed this concept by presenting absinthe and the café filled with drinking Parisians in a matter-of-fact manner. Based on the clothing of the figures in the painting, it’s safe to assume this café were for higher middle class bourgeoisie individuals - a place they could have intellectual discussions over good beer and wine, as cafes were thought to be for. As Lautrec displays, however, while these cafés did attract discussions, as signaled by the small congregation in the background, the main event at cafés was, without question, drinking and people watching. The absinthe is in the foreground of the painting, recognizable by its bright green hue, is subtle in its unassuming position in the frame but speaks volumes when analyzed in the context of the time period and the scene. In the late 1800s absinthe was facing backlash from individuals on both sides of the political spectrum due to its supposed medical problems and involvement in scandals. Artists working at the time, especially ones immersed in Parisian culture, would have known this so it is not an unintelligent assumption to believe Lautrec was very aware of the connotations absinthe had. To put absinthe in the front of the frame, in front of a man leaning back and making eye contact, shows this drunkenness the man is experiencing is just a fact of life. This man isn’t spending his time in a café to discuss philosophy as the poets of the nineteenth century were doing but to drink liquor and smoke cigarettes. Lautrec does not shy away from depicting what Paris truly was - regardless of his thick brush strokes and colorful palette, he too was a realist in a sense.

While Paris in a generalized sense was experiencing it’s pseudo Golden Age, it was far from perfect. Haussmannization left the city looking beautiful and a new tourist destination but it came at a too-hefty price for much of the population. To make new buildings that had all floors lining up with floors on neighboring buildings on newer, wider boulevards, much of Paris’ older buildings and historically significant roads had to be destroyed. Thousands of lower class Parisians were displaced from their homes. With Haussmannization intermingling classes for the first time, homelessness and miserable working classes were front and center for the bourgeoisie for seemingly the first time. Urbanization and industrialization stimulated the economy in Paris but unfortunately at a price. The economic system functioned on cheap labor - working classes in many cases became dangerously underpaid. Laborers such as laundresses had to work long hours for low pay. Alcohol became readily available and cheaper then ever. Many of the most hard-working individuals spiraled into alcoholism. While the number of alcoholics was greatly exaggerated by the opposition of absinthe, for many members of lower classes alcohol provided the escape they needed.[10] The opposition of absinthe viewed absinthe as a morally unsound drink and one that made people go delirious. This was the result of the drink’s link to horrifying news stories in France such as the Lanfray murders (where a father killed his wife and children after drinking obscene amounts of absinthe and wine) and likely due to absinthe’s reputation for years as being a drink of the peasants. Towards the tipping point of absinthe’s history, the 1915 French sale ban, France was also experiencing tension leading up the first world war. The military was strict over the French soldiers and citizens. The ban on absinthe in Switzerland lead to pressure on France to follow suit and, with anti-Semitism steadily rising internationally, France was coming down from the high of the Belle Epoque.

Advertisements were vital during the French industrialization. Alcohol and advertisements went hand in hand in the nineteenth century, in fact advertising was one of the key reasons new brands and drinks expanded, paving the way for the growth of cafés.[11] This time period was the first time advertisements became such an important and influential part of industry - for absinthe it was particularly vital. After the first factory Pernod Fills became such a commercial success many factories and companies followed suit. In order to set one’s company apart from the next, advertising proved to be a key tool. Paris meant one thing for advertisers: opportunity. Opportunity to make money, to put a company at the head of the pack. Absinthe, therefore, was the ultimate stand-in for this idea as their depictions of absinthe were fun, vibrant and resulted in revenue. Absinthe was shown as the ultimate symbol for what the Belle Epoque stood for. Posters placed all over the city were often colorful and showed café and bar scenes as congregations were the well to do enjoyed themselves. They usually involved well dressed women toeing the line between eccentric high-class women and prostitutes - prostitutes with men flirting and laughing with them - and a bottle enlarged in the foreground so people could almost reach out and touch. A good example of this is the “Absinthe Perle” poster by Bensa Dupont from around 1900. This imagery catered to both bourgeoisie who became interested in the raunchy, mischievous scene and lower class working men and women who needed relief from the woes of life.

Of course, advertisers were also tasked with fighting against the backlash from those against absinthe. Though the opposition to absinthe wasn’t very high in number, the few that led the charge were in positions of power. The opposition was able to perpetuate rumors on absinthe that lasted for years after such as its contribution to alcoholism (though most reports showed even at peak years of absinthe consumption it still only accounted for 3% of all alcohol consumption) and its suspected damages to one’s health. The art of the opposition was clear in its intent to dissuade citizens from drinking absinthe by the dark subject matter and clear symbolism. In “The Absinthe Demon”, an anti-alcohol drawing from 1910 by Jacques Sourian, a noted cartoonist at the time, absinthe’s symbolism as an evil entity is clear. Paris’ ultimate vice is personified as a beautiful yet evil woman curling over the back of a chair to seduce a well-dressed man enjoying a glass of the drink. The drink and Parisian behaviors that the opposition detested were seductive forces that turned the smartest into someone glazed over and mindless. The ad for Cusenier’s “L’absinthe Oxygene” can be viewed as an almost direct combat to imagery like this. In typical advertising style, the poster is bright and loud. A rich man sits center frame, smiling at a well-dressed woman through the window, and pours water over a brimming glass of absinthe. It’s important to note in this poster the man is pouring the water and not the absinthe so the overflowing drink can be seen as more water filled than absinthe. Next to the man is the phrase “c'est ma santé”, meaning, “it is my health”, as if to say if this isn’t healthy then I am not.

Then, of course, there were the artists who used absinthe like a weapon - wielding it within art to make clear criticisms of Parisian culture. Impressionists, today, are known for many things: their painterly brushstrokes, their liberal use of bright colors, their use of light in paintings. They are particularly known for pushing boundaries in art, and many of them as artists have historically done, used their art as a form of social agency. Edgar Degas was one of these artists and used absinthe as a way to display grievances with the society he was witnessing. He had the influence of famous anti-romantic Naturalists such as the famous writer Emile Zola. Degas was an avid opponent of many Parisian behaviors that came to be accepted in the nineteenth century, such as prostitution and the treatment of working classes - ideals that can be seen with his ballerina series and the painting “L’Absinthe” from 1875. ”L’Absinthe” focuses on two figures sat in a café with the lighting suggesting that it’s morning. Degas uses rolling perspective and thick brush strokes to depict the textures of the seats and the woman’s intricate dress. Degas actually used two of his friends for the models in this piece - fellow painter Marcellin Desboutin was the inspiration for the man sitting in the side of the frame looking away and actress Ellen Andree was the woman who takes up the majority of the space in this painting. Andree faced criticism for her participation in this painting because at the time it was seen as unsightly to see such a proper woman depicted in this manner.[12] The woman certainly is in a daze. She looks to the side of the frame - eyes glazed and lost with her hands folded in her lap. The absinthe lying in front of her serves as a condemnation as to what got her like this - worn down and wrecked. Degas submitted this to be show in the Grafton Gallery in London in 1893, years after its creation, to the shock and horror of audiences in London. Critics were horrified at seeing the bourgeoisie, usually put together in art, in an alcoholic state. Degas is deliberately using absinthe’s prominent placement to work with the state of the two patrons in the café visible to confront those with enough power and money to attend nice exhibitions and Salons: the reality of what Parisian culture was doing to its people. Degas is not so much criticizing absinthe but instead utilizing the reputation absinthe was already getting to communicate a message about Paris.

Artist Jean- Francois Raffaelli was good friends with Degas, who invited him to Impressionist exhibitions in 1880 and 1881. This action bothered many artists in the exhibition, including Monet who later pulled out entirely, as Raffaelli was known for his increasingly Realist-reminiscent style. Not only did Raffaelli use his paintings as a way to show points of much needed improvement in French society but his formal qualities were similar as well - from his limited color palette to his large paintings of peasant life. It was no secret that he did not care for many aspects of Parisian society that conservatives Monet actually favored. “The Absinthe Drinkers” from 1881 was one of the paintings that he exhibited that angered audiences. It was originally titled “The Degraded” to describe someone who had completely fallen through the social structure of a culture but soon became defined by its link to absinthe, similarly to Degas’ painting.[13] Like Manet’s “Absinthe Drinker”, the main figure is making eye contact with the viewer - an action that made audiences immensely uncomfortable - however, the body language here is vastly different. While Manet’s rag picker figure had an air of defiance, the gaze here is one of misery. The figure to the right confronts audiences with a reminder of what goes on even as they pretend everything is fine. The two figures are dressed in bourgeoisie clothing, though tattered and worn, suggesting a fall from grace that’s reinforced by the original title. Their setting, a cold, barren yard that’s fenced in and covered with overgrown vines, shows a Paris most were content with believing didn’t exist. Similarly to Renoir, the center of this painting is absinthe. While Renoir’s “Luncheon at the Boating Party” focuses the frame around liquor as well, it’s shown to be a source of fun and togetherness. Here it is the source of misery. It’s a far cry from the parties Renoir was keen on depicting.

Absinthe served as a unique platform for artists in the nineteenth century. Artists across all walks of life and sides of the political leanings were able to use the drink to represent specific ideas, regardless of the fact that the drink was used to express vastly different ideas. The prevailing idea, of course, was to shine lights onto the vices and values of Parisian society that the artist either liked or disliked, but what those values and vices were changed on a case-to-case basis. As shown, most of these paintings that heavily featured absinthe in them were not comments of absinthe at all. This is likely due to the fact that despite what harsh opponents to the drink claimed, most everyone in Parisian society drank and even though absinthe consumption only came to about 3%, a majority of Parisians still drank it. Absinthe’s representation in nineteenth century art was a reflection of its history and Paris’ - signaling why the art produced that featured it differed so starkly.

References

Brennan, Thomas. "Towards the Cultural History of Alcohol in France." Journal of Social History 23, no. 1 (1989): 71-92.

Conrad III, Barnaby, “Absinthe - History in a Bottle.” San Francisco. Chronicle Books (1988)

Earle, David M. ""Green Eyes, I See You. Fang, I Feel": The Symbol of Absinthe in "Ulysses"" James Joyce Quarterly 40, no. 4 (2003): 691-709.

Herbert, Robert. “Art, Leisure & Parisian Society” New Haven and London. Yale University Press (1988)

Howard, Sarah. "The Advertising Industry and Alcohol in Interwar France." The Historical Journal 51, no. 2 (2008): 421-55.

Lajer-Burcharth, Ewa. "Modernity and the Condition of Disguise: Manet's "Absinthe Drinker"" Art Journal 45, no. 1 (1985): 18-26.

Marrus, Michael R. "Social Drinking in the "Belle Epoque"" Journal of Social History 7, no. 2 (1974): 115-41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3786351.

Morse-Jones, Kimberley. "The 'Philistine' and the New Art Critic: A New Perspective on the Debate about Degas's "L'Absinthe" of 1893." The British Art Journal 9, no. 2 (2008): 50-61.

Prestwich, P.E. "Temperance in France: The Curious Case of Absinth." Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 6, no. 2 (1979): 301-19.

Thomson, Richard. "The Drinkers of Daumier, Raffaëlli and Toulouse-Lautrec: Preliminary Observations on a Motif." Oxford Art Journal 2 (1979): 29-33.

Vollard, Ambroise. “Renoir, An Intimate Record” Dover Publications (1990)

Young, Marnin. "Heroic Indolence: Realism and the Politics of Time in Raffaëlli's "Absinthe Drinkers"" The Art Bulletin 90, no. 2 (2008): 235-59.

[1] Barnaby Conrad III. Absinthe – History in a Bottle. (San Francisco; Chronicle Books, 1988), 6. [2] Robert Herbert. Art, Leisure & Parisian Society (New Haven and London. Yale University Press 1988), 72. [3] Barnaby Conrad III. Absinthe – History in a Bottle. (San Francisco; Chronicle Books, 1988), 87-95. [4]P.E Prestwich. Temperance in France: The Curious Case of Absinthe..(Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 6, no. 2. 1979) 301 [5] David M Earle. "Green Eyes, I See You. Fang, I Feel": The Symbol of Absinthe in "Ulysses" (James Joyce Quarterly 40, no. 4. 2003) [6] Michael R. Marrus Social Drinking in the "Belle Epoque (Journal of Social History 7, no. 2. 1974) 129-133 [7]Ambroise Vollard: Renoir, An Intimate Record. 30 [8]Ewa Lajer-Burcharth. Modernity and the Condition of Disguise: Manet's "Absinthe Drinker" (Art Journal 45, no. 1 1985) 18-22 [9] Quote directly from Henri Toulouse Lautrec [10] Barnaby Conrad III. Absinthe – History in a Bottle. (San Francisco; Chronicle Books, 1988), 113-117. [11] Sarah Howard. The Advertising Industry and Alcohol in Interwar France. (The Historical Journal 51, no. 2. 2008): 421-55. [12] Kimberley Morse-Jones. The 'Philistine' and the New Art Critic: A New Perspective on the Debate about Degas's "L'Absinthe" of 1893. (The British Art Journal 9, no. 2. 2008): 54-56. [13] Richard Thomson. The Drinkers of Daumier, Raffaëlli and Toulouse-Lautrec: Preliminary Observations on a Motif. (Oxford Art Journal 2. 1979) 29-33